Too Long; Didn't Read

Before the 1770 invention of rubber erasers, moist bread crumbs were the standard tool for removing graphite. Rolled into small balls, the soft and porous bread effectively lifted pencil marks off paper without damaging the surface. Rubber eventually replaced bread because it was more durable and did not rot.

why-did-people-use-moist-bread-crumbs-to-erase-pencil-marks-before-the-rubber-eraser-was-invented

https://www.webexhibits.org/pigments/intro/medieval.html

https://fineartconnoisseur.com/2017/10/natural-drawing-materials-circa-1500-1800/

https://cypaint.com/article/how-did-people-paint-in-the-1800s

the 1800s,  painting techniques and materials underwent significant transformations, reflecting the artistic movements and technological advancements of the time. Artists primarily used oil paints, which were made by mixing pigments with linseed or other drying oils, applied to canvases or wooden panels. The invention of portable paint tubes in the mid-19th century revolutionized the way painters worked, allowing them to create en plein air (outdoors) with greater ease. This period saw the rise of Romanticism, Realism, and Impressionism, each influencing how artists approached composition, color, and subject matter. Brushwork became more expressive, with Impressionists like Monet and Renoir using rapid, visible strokes to capture light and movement, while Realists like Courbet focused on meticulous detail and everyday life. The era also witnessed experimentation with new pigments, such as synthetic ultramarine and chrome yellow, expanding the color palette available to artists.

Painting

Characteristics	Values
Materials	Oil paints, watercolors, tempera, and natural pigments derived from minerals, plants, and animals.
Supports	Canvas, wood panels, paper (for watercolors), and occasionally copper or ivory.
Brushes	Natural hair brushes (sable, hog, or camel hair) of varying sizes.
Palettes	Wooden  palettes with thumb holes for easy handling.
Techniques	Layering (glazing), impasto, alla prima (wet-on-wet), and detailed realism.
Subject Matter	Landscapes, portraits, historical scenes, still life, and genre painting.
Styles	Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Realism, and the beginnings of Impressionism.
Lighting	Natural light preferred; gas lighting or candles for indoor work.
Outdoor  Painting	Increased popularity due to portable easels and paint tubes (introduced in the mid-1800s).
Paint Storage	Pigments stored in pig bladders or glass jars; oils in collapsible tubes (after 1841).
Varnishing	Final varnish applied to protect and enhance the painting’s appearance.
Training	Academic training in art schools, ateliers, or through apprenticeships.
Influences	Classical art, nature, and societal changes (industrialization, colonialism).
Preservation	Limited use of preservatives; reliance on natural drying and varnishing.
Notable Artists	J.M.W. Turner, Eugène Delacroix, Jean-François Millet, and Gustave Courbet.